How the Black Death Transformed the Role of States Essay

How the Black Death Transformed the Role of States - Essay Example This paper discusses the impact of the Black Death on the role of states. The Response of the State to the Black Death From the 16th century, the state had persuaded the city government, the London Corporation, to take steps to stop the pestilence and other maladies. The frequently recommended solution was a kind of quarantine, where the afflicted were prohibited to leave their homes.ii Theodore de Mayerne, the king’s physician, produced a statement in the 1630s indicating a stricter regulation for food distribution, removal of beggars, and widespread cleansing. Furthermore, he suggested that a public health centre be formed, with power over issues of beggars, cleanliness and sanitation, and health assistance.iii Even though the physician received due respect from the king’s counsellors, his recommendations were immediately overlooked after the plague had stopped. In the period after the 1640s deaths from pestilence were unusual, and the ‘pesthouses’ where the afflicted were confined had been renovated for other functions. A lot of physicians, by 1665, had never observed the typical indications of the epidemic, and London stayed defenceless.iv The Royal College of Physicians, the certifying association for physicians, had been licensed by Henry VIII and had been an esteemed organisation. However, by 1665, its power was greatly diminished due to its historical connection with the state, oppositions from other associations, like the Society of Chemical Physicians, and the reality that only a few Royal College physicians were working in the city, and several doctors could simply be identified as frauds whose certification had been coerced by King Charles on the Royal College.v Yet, when the Black Death stormed, the Royal College suggested medications and public health actions to mitigate the predicament. The Royal College also financially supported medications for the infected people who could not pay for them. Additional pesthouses were hurriedly constructed, and alleged ‘plague nurses’ were assigned to look after the afflicted, even though many thought that their major interest was to speed up their demise so they could steal from them.vi As usual, the state attempted to fight the pestilence by removing beggars and wandering merchants from the streets, shutting down courts, schools, and other establishments, and implementing quarantine on the afflicted and their families. London’s economic being was plunged into pandemonium, and countless animals were exterminated due to suspicions that they carry the virus.vii State-supported exterminators were hired to eradicate cats and dogs and received two pence for each animal as wage. This was a big pay at that time, and Daniel Defoe, who presented a description of the pestilence, assessed that 200,000 cats and 40,000 dogs were killed, and usually the remains were left to rot in the streets, hence worsening the already revolting reek in the city.viii Th ese actions only made the rat population bigger, because nobody knew in during this time that these pests were the main virus-carriers. In September, the state ordered the kindling of flares to expel the epidemic from the air. Countless were dying successively that burying the deceased became a serious hygiene problem. Digging of mass graves was the initial response of the state, but there were very few gravediggers.ix At last, when the October weather chilled, the number of deaths dropped and

Strong and stubborn Maggie Essay Example for Free

Strong and stubborn Maggie Essay After Hobson enters the house Maggie commands him not to be late for dinner. Hobson doesnt like Maggie trying to order him about because she is female, but Maggie doesnt back down. Maggie and Hobson have a battle for dominance because neither one will take orders from the other this shows how strong and stubborn Maggie and her father can be, they have a very similar character but Hobson is sometimes a bit of a snob unlike Maggie. Later on Maggie asks here father how much a week does he give her. Her father answers, Thats neither here nor there. This means it doesnt really matter you still get money, but really they get very little except when they get new cloths every year which Hobson pays ten pounds for each of them which is a lot of money, food and a shelter over their head. Maggie took control of this situation making sure her father would think that he doesnt give them any money which is very wise but also very cunning. Later on in the passage Hobson decides to try and find a wife for Alice and Vicky, but completely excludes Maggie. Even though Maggie is very strong willed and minded this is still very hurtful because she is getting excluded by her own father, this shows how horrible Hobson can be. Even though Maggie is assertive and asks were she comes into this. Hobson is astonished by this and laughs at her, thinking Maggie will never get married. Hobson tells Maggie the brutal truth saying she is a proper old maid, this is saying she is too old to marry. After Mrs. Hepworth enters the shop, she asks who made these boots. Hobson is made a fool when he cant give Mrs. Hepworth a direct answer, but Maggie gives her a direct answer as recognised by Mrs. Hepworth. This shows how Maggie works in logic Mr. Hobson doesnt want to say who because he is proud of how he makes the boots on the premises buy he doesnt make them. Maggie realises how much of a Treasure Willie is, this is the turning point of the play were Maggie thinks of her plan to make a business and move away from her father. Hobson said that Maggie is useful to part with, he recognises her qualities as a business woman but he doesnt treat her with that respect. This shows Maggie is very useful if Hobson can say this because his is a greedy man only looking to make as much money as possible. Maggie tells Willie, Youre a natural born Genius at making boots. Maggie is telling him about how talented he is which shows her nice side but in the same sentence she said Youre a natural fool at all else. Maggie can be nice to him and insult him with no thinking, she doesnt even notice that she insulted him. This may be because she speaks her mind and she just thought it was true. Willies life is ruled by fear because he wont move to a better shoe shop because he fears the fine places, Maggie wants to help him to give him the confidence to be able to go into a better shop, and she is the liberator that wants to help all including her. Willie tells Maggie that she is a wonder in the shop, this may be because Maggie complimented him earlier or he was telling the truth and thinking on the same wavelength as Maggie for a second. As Willie dives to the trap Maggie stops him, this could be symbolic that Maggie is getting him out of Hobsons trap but he is now trapped with Maggie, this is worse because Maggie is a lot cleverer than Hobson and also a lot more demanding. Maggie steps out of the stereotype of women when she asks Willie to marry her. This shows how Maggie is a woman out of her time she is too demanding and cant wait until someone else does it so she has to do it, this shows she is very brave and can do things without thinking of the consequences. Maggie knows this is her last chance to get out because life is so scarce she needs this chance. Willie is worried about what Hobson will say, he is too frightened to hurt someone. This also shows how again he is living in fear, Maggie has brought back the fear because she has put him in an strange situation. Maggie tells him When I make arrangements, my lad, theyre not made for upsetting. This is telling him I wont take no for an answer you are marrying me I have made plans for the future with you and I am going to make them true whatever the cost. This shows hoe determined Maggie can be and also how vicious she can be because she if forcing him to harry her even though he is very reluctant about marrying someone. Later when Ada is mentioned Maggie calls her the sandy haired girl, this could be because sand is easy to find saying she is one of thousands not an individual like Maggie, but straight away Willie said Golden haired is Ada. Gold is a lot less common than sand which makes her to look like an individual and not someone who follows everyone elses tastes. These two comparisons show how they both see this woman Willie sees her in the eyes of a lover but Maggie sees her in the eyes of someone who is maybe jealous at his moment. Maggie later says Ive seen her and I know the breed. The one word that stands out in the sentence is breed, Maggie is comparing Ada to an animal which has with no feelings, this is very cruel and aggressive, this is Maggies aggressive side which is very really seen in the play but when it is seen it is not meant to be liked. Maggie said to Willie its a desperate woman thatll look for protection to the likes of you. This is insulting both Ada and Willie which Maggie found quite easy to do. Maggie is being very cruel to Ada which many people who are watching the play with think is wrong thinking Maggie is a bully like her father. The sympathy for Maggie is shifted to Ada because of Maggie abusive attitude towards her, Maggie doesnt even treat her like a normal human being. Maggie later says shes born to meekness. This is continuing to be abusive to Ada maybe trying to have an argument with her, but Maggie knows that she will walk all over her. Maggie tells Willie that he will be an eighteen shilling bookmaker for the rest of his life, this is to tell him if you marry Ada you will be poor forever but if you marry me I will be able to help you. This is very cunning of Maggie knowing that Willie wants to make the most in his life and he knows he will be stuck in Hobsons for the rest of his life without Maggie, on a wage so low he cant afford the things that he makes. Maggie also tells Willie Youll be a slave, and a contented slave. This is telling him youll be stuck her forever owned by Hobson and if you try to escape youll have to come back just to earn money, you are trapped here without my help. This is showing Maggie hurting someone to help someone and herself which is how her. The play is showing how she is a liberator breaking the chains off Willie and setting him free in the world with her. Maggie said Ive got my work cut out. This shows how she isnt giving up saying I will convince you sooner or later which shows her character as being very strong willed and what she said goes without a question. When Willie wants to be left alone Maggie said So does the fly when the spider catches him. This could be interpreted as Maggie catching him so he is not a free man Maggie has just took him in as a trap like Hobson had him, Maggie may do it with a lot more lenience but still not enough for him to be a freed man. Maggie also says You are my man. This is indicating that she owns him like a slave which is just what her father done but in a worse way, it could be very demining as well because Willie could think that he isnt worth anything being tossed about from Hobson to Maggie like an item of trade. When Maggie tells Willie to hold your hush. This is telling him to shut up using an imperative, many men those days would not allow women to command them to shut up but because Willie is feeble he has no choice so he just goes on with it.

A Study On The Petronas Towers Construction Essay

A Study On The Petronas Towers Construction Essay Supertall buildings are a relatively recent addition to the history of the cities around the world. Technology of the nineteenth century made their development possible. Steel, concrete and masonry materials have existed for a long time in the history of civilization but not in such a configuration. Masonry is the oldest material. Concrete in its present form is the youngest of these three basic structural materials of construction. Concrete, unlike any other structural building material, allows the architects and engineers to choose not only its mode of production, but its material properties as well. Although steel will continue to be the structural material of choice for many tall buildings for its strength and ductility, we may expect to see more and more concrete and composite high-rise structures shaping the skylines of major cities of the world in the forthcoming years. As a result, the field of concrete tall building construction is rapidly changing and its limits are constantly being tested and stretched. The introduction of composite construction to tall tubular buildings has paved the way for supertall composite buildings like the PETRONAS Towers. 1. INTRODUCTION Much of the technological change in concrete construction was in the first half of the 20th century. Advances in formwork, mixing of concrete, techniques for pumping, and types of admixtures to improve quality have all contributed to the ease of working with concrete in high-rise construction. There were main four periods in the development of skyscraper which began around 1808 and ended in 1960s where structures were usually vertical and dominant. During 1970s the international modernism in construction started to rise and this introduced a renewed interest in silhouettes and symbolic potential. The most efficient construction coordination plan for a tall building is one that allows formwork to be reused multiple times. Traditionally, formwork was made of wood but as technology has advanced, the forms have become a combination of wood, steel, aluminum, fiberglass and plastic, to name only a few materials. Each set may be self-supporting with trusses attached to the exterior or may need additional shoring to support it in appropriate locations. New additions to the family of forms include flying-forms, slip forms, and jump forms. The PETRONAS towers are a good example of this latest period. The techniques improved continually till now when pumping of concrete is considered even for small jobs. In recent years, concrete pumping has reached new heights. The builders for the Jin Mao Building in Shanghai, China, boast of pumping high strength concrete as high as 1200 ft (366 m). For such great heights, a high-pressure unit is needed. Great thought must be given to the properties of concrete and how it will react when pressure is applied in a pipe. All these factors demanded innovations in concrete technology. 2. THE SKYSCRAPERS Already a well-argued case between Architects and Engineers is to build a environment with minimal impact on natural environment and to integrate the built environment with ecological systems of the locality. This proposition of the skyscraper as an ecologically- responsive building might well appear to be a conundrum for some.Afterall; Skyscraper is the citys most intensive building-type of enormous size. The council on tall Buildings and Urban habitat in USA defines the skyscraper as a tall building whose built form that by virtue of its height requires its own special engineering systems. Figure 3. PETRONAS PETRONAS was incorporated on 17 August 1974 as the national oil company of Malaysia, vested with the entire ownership and control of the petroleum resources in the country. It has since grown from merely being the manager and regulator of Malaysias upstream sector into a fully integrated oil and gas corporation, ranked among the FORTUNE Global 500 ®Ã‚  largest corporations in the world. The national oil company along with investors and federal government of Malaysia decided to construct the PETRONAS Towers which will be a major headquarter for the company along with other offices mentioned above. PETRONAS in the best possible way tried to balance and integrate economic, environmental and social considerations into their business decisions. These considerations include, among others, strong HSE management and performance, continuous development has made a holistic contribution to the society. Below is the graph that shows the financial outlook of the company Figure 4. HISTORY Designed by Argentine architects Cà ©sar Pelli and Djay Cerico under the consultancy of Julius Gold, the PETRONAS Towers were completed in 1998 after a seven year build and became the tallest buildings in the world on the date of completion. They were built on the site of Kuala Lumpurs race Because of the depth of the bedrock; the buildings were built on the worlds deepest foundations. The 120-meter foundations were built within 12 months by Bachy Soletanche and required massive amounts of concrete. Its engineering designs on structural framework were contributed by Haitian engineer Domo Obiasse and collegues Aris Battista and Princess D Battista. PETRONAS took the challenge to develop the PETRONAS Twin Towers in 1991. The project is an integral part of the Kuala Lumpur City Centre (KLCC), a carefully planned development to provide the capital city with an efficient and modern centre for urban activity, trade and commerce encircling a vast, open green lung. It brought together the worlds leading practitioners of engineering, building technology and construction. Construction planning began in January 1992. By March 1993, the excavators were hard at work digging down to 30 meters below the surface of the site. The extent of excavation required over 500 truck-loads of earth to be moved every night. The next stage was the single largest and longest concrete pour in Malaysian history: 13,200 cubic meters of concrete was continuously poured through a period of 54 hours for each tower. This record-breaking slab, together with 104 piles forms the foundation for each of the towers. From this floor rose a 21-metre high retaining wall, with a perimeter length of over 1 kilometer. This concrete shell and the basement area it enclosed required two years of up to 40 workers on site all day and night. The final product is the basement car park offering a total of 5,400 parking bays on five levels beneath the podium wrapping the towers. As an added consideration, two different contractors were chosen for each tower to allow cross-monitoring of construction values and techniques with one coming to the aid of the other should problems arise. The construction of the superstructure commenced in April 1994, after rigorous tests and simulations of wind and structural loads on the design. 5. PETRONAS TOWERS The PETRONAS towers are part of a massive real estate development on a 100 acre site in Kuala Lumpur which eventually after completion now has office buildings, a retail centre, hotels, residential buildings and substantial public parks, gardens and lakes. The twin PETRONAS towers are linked by a sky bridge at mid height. It consists of 216,901 square meter of total floor space, 88 levels rising to a height of 450m above street level. This was the first project in Malaysia where high strength concrete was specified. To achieve completion of the structural frame in approximately 28 months every floor needed to be constructed in approximately 4.3 days putting great pressure on the contractor to achieve rapid, delay free construction. The main structural system for the super structure and foundation were selected after a rigorous study and evaluation by the design and project management team. The structural approach in the tower frame combines the most favorable aspects of concrete and steel construction. Figure 6. PRECONSTRUCTION CONSULTANCY Due to the nature of the project, being the first super tall structure of its kind in Malaysia and very limited experience with the use of high strength concrete, the contractors were required to demonstrate that the requirements of the project could be successfully achieved prior to actual construction of structural elements. The contractor Samsung-Kukdong-Jasatera joint ventures were to do it. The major engineering and structural design teams were a collection of eminent international companies and consultants including such notables as Cà ©sar Pelli Associates, Hazama Corporation, Adamson Associates Architects, Solà ©tanche Bachy, RSP Architects Planners Engineers, Samsung Engineering Construction, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd., Syarikat Jasatera Sdn Bhd., and several dozen other major international firms. Legions of support engineers and designers in an array of specific disciplines contributed over the course of the years. 7. SITE AND DESIGN The site for PETRONAS Towers is the Golden Triangle. Around it radiates the city of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysias capital. The jewel of this 100-acre site are the towers. Working within mixed-used development plan by U.S firm of Klages, Carter, Vail and Partners. The design drawings show a complex of buildings growing from an intimate relationship with the site, generating from its core. The concert halls provide an important gathering space. Figure Map showing the Kuala Lumpur City Centre PETRONAS Towers I II Concert Hall Suria KLCC Retail Complex Office Tower (Menara Maxis, Menara Esso) Mandarin Oriental Hotel Future Buildings 8. FLOOR PLAN PETRONAS towers floor plan when viewed appears as two overlapping squares to create an eight pointed star which is further refined with half-circles between star points. The spirit of geometry is Islamic which dominant Malaysian culture is. Other eastern forms are woven into towers form. The towers are placed on a central axis. Figure 9. DESIGN METHODOLOGY The design for the PETRONAS Towers was not a written document or a set of drawings for the contractors to follow when building the structure.   It was instead an evolving process that took place over the course of many years.   This enormous amount of communication and the design considerations that were discussed produced a final result that differs considerably from the plan that won the first Kuala Lumpur City Center design competition held in 1991. The number of designers, engineers, and building contractor management personnel that took part in the design process is about the same as the number of workers that actually built the towers. About 7,000 construction workers took place in the actual building of the towers, as there was a great concern for the congestion that would occur in the busy Kuala Lumpur city center.   7,000 design workers talking constantly among themselves for five or six years designed the building.   It was certainly an impressive conversation.   Although much of this talk took place directly between individuals, this project probably would not have been possible before the development of the Internet or sophisticated project and communication management software.    Every phase of the process, from the drawings and engineering research down to the daily work orders was accomplished with cutting edge software that was in many cases as technologically innovative as other parts of the project. The high quality of the PETRONAS Towers is the result of the quality of the design team.   Although Cà ©sar Pelli was the titular designer and he served as the lead visionary, the design contributors included Prime Minister Dr. Mahathir, businessman T. Ananda Krishnan, senior managers of the PETRONAS company, the Kuala Lumpur City Center planning manager Arlida Ariff, and many high ranking national and local politicians.. The design process itself was as much a marvel as are the physical towers visible today.   When construction began the design did not call for the tallest buildings in the world and the entire foundation was moved after excavations had already begun. The parking garage was located up inside the towers in Cà ©sar Pellis first drawings and the powerful Skybridge was absent from the original 1990 Klages Carter Vail Partners plans for the Kuala Lumpur City Center development that first called for two towers.   These and many more features of the project changed as the design for the project evolved continuously over the life of the project and the final result is a testament to the efficiency of the whole multi-year design process. 10. CONSTRUCTION One of the first challenges that were faced during the towers constructions was anchoring the towers to the ground. The bedrock beneath the site was very irregular and thornton-tomasetti,the structural engineers suggested to relocate the towers about 200 ft to be able to bear on soil. The towers were framed with concrete walls and columns. In Malaysia the contractors were comfortable working with steel and concrete, concrete and steel actually helps in reducing the wind sways and minimize vibrations. Construction of towers was fast paced, because it was a decision to have two contractors one for each tower that created a competitive environment and work commenced at a faster phase. One of the most dramatic feats was placement of the two story sky bridge, which was built on the ground and hoisted to its location joining the 41st floor and 42nd floors. The construction of the PETRONAS Towers was a model of cooperation and efficiency and in some respects even more spectacular than the final result. Figure Figure After a year of planning, the construction phase began in March 1993 with the excavation work for the foundation. The originally selected location was moved 60 meters due to the configuration of the bedrock exposed during the excavations. The excavation for the foundation went 30 meters below the soil surface, with work proceeding only after sunset and more than five hundred dump trucks full of soil being removed from the site each night. For each of the two towers, more than one hundred foundation piles were poured next. Once the forms were in place, the slabs for the foundation of the two towers were poured in two continuous pours lasting about two and a half days each and using over 13,000 cubic feet of concrete for each of the two slabs. On top of these slabs a perimeter wall over a kilometer in total length and 21 meters tall was created to form the shell that would become the five-level underground car park. The contract to construct the two towers was given to two different contracting companies and their friendly competition resulted in both remarkable speed and valuable cooperation as each team shared with the other information gained during the building process. Tower One, which houses the PETRONAS headquarters, was built by a group led by the Japanese Hazama Corporation along with J.A Jones Construction of Charlotte North Carolina, and the Mitsubishi Corporation, MMC Engineering, and Ho Hop Construction of Japan. Tower Two was constructed by the SKJ Consortium, composed of Samsung Engineering Construction and Kuku Dong Engineering Construction from Korea, Dragages and Bachy-Soletanche from Singapore and Syarikat Jasatera and First Nationwide Engineering Sdn Bhd from Malaysia. Work on the tower structures started in April 1994 was completed by June 1996, with the first tenants moving into the buildings in 1998. The Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir bin Mohammad presided over the opening ceremonies for the towers on Aug. 31, 1999, which coincided with the celebration of Malaysias Hari Kebangsaan holiday that marks the unification of the country and the establishment of the Malaya Federation in 1957. Although many foreign firms participated in the construction process, a great deal of the work was done by local Malaysian companies. It is estimated that sixty percent of the materials used in the construction were obtained locally. All of the concrete and construction timber was Malaysian in origin as were many of the interior finishing materials including marble, ceramic tiles, and drywall materials. Many of the more complex features such as escalators, electrical fixtures and components and furniture were also supplied by Malaysian firms. 11. DETAILED STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS The functional structures of the PETRONAS Towers were designed by the structural engineers Thornton-Tomasetti, with headquarters in New York, and Ranill-Berskutu of Malaysia. The core structure of each of the towers is composed of a ring of sixteen cylindrical columns of high strength reinforced concrete. The columns vary in size from 2.4 meters in diameter at the lower areas to 1.2 meters in diameter at the top, and are placed at the outside corners and additional arcs of the eight pointed star shape that gives the buildings their classic Islamic shape. In a staging of six increments, the columns slope slightly inward as they rise, resulting in the tapered form of the final buildings. The columns are linked with a series of concrete core walls and ring beams and the architect Cà ©sar Pelli has described these movement-resistant and damper-free structures as a pair of soft tubes. There are actually two concentric pressurized cores in the structures, and the two cores unite at the 38 th floor of each tower. A significant choice of building materials was made early in the project, and it was decided to use reinforced concrete instead of the structural steel that is more common in other skyscrapers. This choice was made not only because local Malaysian contractors were more experienced building with concrete than with steel, but also because the cost of importing all the steel would have been prohibitive, whereas the concrete could be obtained locally. The final towers weigh more than twice what they would have had steel been used, but it was additionally felt that the use of concrete would more effectively dampen sway in windy conditions and reduce vibrations within the towers. The structural plan liberates additional floor space inside the towers by locating the mechanical services for the towers in two bustles that are 43 story tall buildings located immediately adjacent to the towers. After completion, the exteriors of the two concrete soft tubes were clad in stainless steel and glass with a design that originated in the classic geometric patterns of ancient Islamic art. The foundations for the structures are huge concrete cores and are considered the deepest building foundations in the world. The two 73-meter tall pinnacle structures of the towers were, like the towers, constructed by two different contractors. One of the pinnacles was fabricated in Japan and the other in Korea. Built of structural steel and then disassembled and shipped to Kuala Lumpur, the pinnacles were reassembled and mounted atop the towers in yet another delicate operation that required several months of practice before the final installation. The two pinnacles are clad in brushed stainless steel. Each tower used 11,000 tons of reinforcement steel, 2,825,120 cubic feet of high-strength concrete, almost 7,500 tons of structural steel beams and 830,000 square feet of glass windows. Figure 12. SKYBRIDGE The towers feature a  skybridge  between the two towers on 41st and 42nd floors, which is the highest 2-story bridge in the world.  It is not directly bolted to the main structure, but is instead designed to slide in and out of the towers to prevent it from breaking during high winds.  The bridge is 170  m (558  ft) above the ground and 58  m (190  ft) long, weighing 750 tons.  The same floor is also known as the podium, since visitors desiring to go to higher levels have to change elevators here. Figure 13. THE LIFT SYSTEM The main bank Otis Lifts is located in the centre of each tower. All main lifts are double decker with the lower deck of the lift taking passengers to odd numbered floors and upper deck to even numbered floors. From the ground floor, there are three groups of lifts. The short haul group of 6 lifts takes passengers to floors between level 2/3 and level 16/17. The mid haul groups of 6 lifts take passengers to floors between level 18/19 and level 37/38. There is also a set of shuttle lifts that take passengers directly to levels 41/42. To get to levels above 41/42, passengers must take the shuttle lifts, and then change to lifts to the upper floors. These connecting lifts are directly above the lifts that serve levels 2 to 38. The pattern now repeats with the upper levels, one set serving levels 43/44 to 57/58 and one set serving levels 59/60 to levels 73/74. Apart from this main bank of lifts, there are a series of lifts to take people between the groups. Unlike the main lifts, these are not the double-decker type. Two lifts are provided to take people from levels 37/38 to levels 41/42 (levels 39 and 40 are not accessible as office space). This spares someone in the lower half of the building from having to go back to the ground floor to go to the upper half of the building. The lifts contain a number of safety features. It is possible to evacuate  people from a lift stuck between floors by manually driving one of the adjacent lifts next to it and opening a panel in the wall..  During an evacuation of the buildings, only the shuttle lift is allowed to be used, as there are only doors at levels G/1 and levels 41/42; therefore should there be a fire in the lower half of the building, this enclosed shaft would remain unaffected. Firefighter lifts are also provided in case of emergency 14. MATERIALS USED The composite structure of the Towers employs both the flexibility of steel and the rigidity of high-strength concrete. Each component material was used to best effect in constructing the 452 m-high buildings. About 80,000 cubic meters of high strength concrete with 37,000 tons of steel were used to form the frames of both Towers. Of particular importance was maintaining the verticality of the structures throughout the full height as they were being built. The reasons for this, besides reinforcing the aesthetic design, were to ensure structural load integrity and the safe passage of the high-speed double-decker elevators. The determination of verticality was monitored by international specialist surveyors who, with the aid of global positioning systems, checked alignments every day and every night. The same surveyor used the same instrument at the same time in every 24 hours, thereby minimizing any element of differences in judgment. Construction works were done primarily at night and finishing works were done primarily during the day (to minimize the cost of artificial lighting). As a result, the entire management and construction team redefined the Malaysian industry standard of fast-track. The PETRONAS Twin Towers were finally encased in steel and glass and could be viewed as complete in June 1996. The construction process also drew extensively from the local industry, with the finished towers having over 60 percent local material content. Malaysian made items included raw materials such as concrete and timber; finishing materials such as marble, ceramic tiles and glass; pre-fabricated materials including dry-walls, doors, suspended ceilings, and metal decking; equipment ranging from escalators to light fittings and sanitary ware; also furniture of all types from work-stations to custom-designed suites. Much of these materials were used in the process of internal finishing, which was then the focus of work teams until the end of 1996.The PETRONAS Towers complex is the tallest building on Kuala Lumpurs horizon, symbolizing Malaysias determination to be a for ward looking and technologically developed country. 15. RECORD BREAKING Since they were constructed in 1997 the towers have held the world record as the highest twin building on land. Until 2004, when they were eclipsed by Taipei 101 in Taiwan, they were the worlds highest building. In spite of being built by different companies the towers are exactly the same height standing at 452m.The Towers are built from super-high strength reinforced concrete, which is reputed to reduce the sway that tall buildings are prone to. However this made the building twice as heavy as a traditional reinforced steel building, necessitating extra deep foundations 120m. 16. COMPARISION WITH OTHER TOWERS Several other buildings are technically taller than the PETRONAS Towers.   The Sears Tower has 110 floors, but is only 442 meters tall.   The Shanghai World Financial Center has 101 floors, and is 492 meters tall.   The Taipei 101 Tower has 101 floors and is 509 meters tall.   As of 2009 several other buildings are proposed or under construction that will be taller.   The proposed Lotte World II in South Korea would be 512 meters tall with 107 floors.   The Burj Dubai is under construction and is planned to be an astounding 818 meters tall with 162 floors. The PETRONAS Twin Towers were the tallest buildings in the world until Taipei 101 was completed in 2004, as measured to the top of their structural components .Spires are considered integral parts of the architectural design of buildings, to which changes would substantially change the appearance and design of the building, whereas antennas may be added or removed without such consequences. The PETRONAS Twin Towers, in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia were the worlds tallest buildings from 1998 to 2004, when their height was surpassed by Taipei 101. The towers remain the tallest twin buildings in the world. Figure Building Location Year Stories Height Chief Architect M. Ft. Burj Khalifa  (Burj Dubai, or Dubai Tower), Dubai, UAE 2010 162 828 2,717 Skidmore, Owings Merrill Lotte World II Busan S. Korea (proposed) 2013? 110 510.55 m 1,680 Stephan Huh, Parker Design International Taipei 101 Tower Taipei, Taiwan 2004 101 509 1,670 C.Y. Lee Partner Shanghai World Financial Center, China 2008 101 492 1,614 Kohn Pedersen Fox International Commerce Centre (ICC),  Hong Kong, China  (under construction) 2010 118 484 1,587.9 Kohn Pedersen Fox Xujiahui Tower, Shanghai, China (proposed) 2010 92 460 1,509 John Portman Associates PETRONAS twin towers 1998 88 452 1,483 Cesar Pelli 17. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The research and knowledge in concrete gained in the first half of the twentieth century benefit technologies today. This paper has provided a broad overview of different historic developments for concrete high-rise buildings. To summarize, the first users of concrete date before 1200 BC and include societies like the Phoenicians, Minoans, and Egyptians, to name only a few. The late 1700s and early 1800s found a renewed discovery of and interest in reinforced concrete as a building structure. Americans and Europeans used it in large warehouses, factory buildings, apartment buildings and homes. New delivery systems, changes in formwork, high-strength concrete and other admixtures were invented which improved concretes strength and workability. Structural systems which go beyond the traditional post-and-beam construction of the Ingalls Building and the introduction of high-strength concrete mixes have together allowed reinforced concrete skyscrapers to grow to heights of the PETRONAS Towers and the Jin Mao Building never dreamed of in Elzners and Ransomes day. Little more than a century ago, reinforced concrete was invented. In that short period of time, reinforced concrete has gone from being a very limited material to one of the most versatile building materials available today. The first reinforced concrete buildings were heavy and massive. Valuable floor space was taken up by the massive concrete structural systems. Today, due to our increased knowledge and improved technology, reinforced concrete buildings can be tall, graceful and elegant. Due, in part, to the use of shear walls, innovative structural systems and ultimate strength design, very little usable floor space is occupied by the structure. HSC and lightweight structural concrete allow us to use smaller member sizes and less steel reinforcement. Because of the rapid developments of concrete construction and technology, with every passing year the use of concrete for tall buildings is becoming a constant reality. The mold ability of concrete is a major factor in creating exciting building forms with elegant aesthetic expression. Compared to steel, concrete tall buildings have larger masses and damping ratios that help in minimizing motion perception. A heavier concrete structure also provides better stability against overturning caused by lateral loads. New structural systems including the composite ones that are popular now have allowed concrete high-rises to reach new heights during the last four decades. Although steel will continue to be the structural material of choice for many tall buildings for its strength and ductility, we may expect to see more and more concrete and composite high-rise structures shaping the skylines of major cities of the world in the forthcoming years.

Essay --

â€Å"The founding fathers made an appropriate choice when they selected the Bald Eagle as the emblem of the nation. The fierce beauty and proud independence of this great bird aptly symbolizes the strength and freedom of America† –John F. Kennedy (Home). Bald Eagles have a unique way of living that makes them a strong symbol of the United States. First, the Eagle has certain traits about it that makes it such a unique and majestic bird. The bird’s Latin name is the Haliaeetus Leucocephalus which translates to â€Å"Sea Eagle with a white head† (Bald). As far as the bird goes, it has a life span of about 30 years living at the top of the food chain. An Eagle has a few weapons for hunting that make them a dangerous predator. Those weapons include the beak and talons which are both made from the substance human fingernails are made of; Keratin. The beak has a hook at the tip which is used for tearing, which creates a â€Å"scissor effect†. The talons are a powerful weapon, yet they are delicate enough to groom and feed their young. Talons are also used to kill the Eagle’s prey by penetrating its fle...

Professional Athletes and Illegal Steroid Use

Athletes of the modern sports are pushing their body to the limits, not only through rigid practice and training, new techniques and strategies but also by enhancing or altering the body’s physiological make up.   Admittedly, the use of drugs in today’s sport is widespread.   Statistics show that athletes even the amateur ones as young as 12 years old are already taking steroids or drugs to enhance their performance in their respective fields. In a survey conducted by the NCAA in 2004, it was reported that among 19-22 year-olds, 18.9% of them responded that they knew friends within the same age bracket who are taking steroids and who are playing a sport and 3% of high school seniors are using steroids as performance enhancers, how much more for the professional athletes who have a lot more at stake than just name, reputation, medal and trophy.So what are steroids and why has it raised so many clamors, not only among the field of sports but also among the field of sc ience?   If an athlete takes steroids, would it be tantamount to cheating as he is not utilizing his own body’s capabilities but that of a drug?  Ã‚   Drugs commonly referred to as steroids are classified as anabolic, androgenic, and corticosteroids.   Corticosteroids are used to control inflammation.   Anabolic steroids which have been the object of media attention are the kind of drugs which is used by athletes and body builders to improve and bulk up their profile and body’s physiology. Anabolic is a Greek word which means to â€Å"build up† and these are synthetic hormones that cause the body to produce more muscle at the same time preventing muscle break down.  Ã‚   In the United States, it is illegal to take anabolic steroids without prescription from a doctor.   Androgenics or androstenedione (andros) is a lesser or weaker kind of anabolic steroid.   It primarily works by increasing testosterone and muscle proteins and many of weigh lifters take this steroid.The Benefits of SteroidsThe human body produces steroids naturally.   In the case of anabolic steroids, they resemble the chemical structure of the male sex hormone testosterone.   It facilitates the development of the male secondary sexual characteristics as well as facilitating muscle growth.   [Hobart, Sarah]. But just like any other development in science, steroids were not developed in order to enhance an athlete’s capabilities.   Rather it was developed in the 1930s in order to treat hypogonadism.   People with such disorder do not produce enough testosterone and the use of steroid helps replace the much needed testosterone.   Such success caught up with the athletes.   In 1956 Olympics, Russian athletes who used steroids were observed to be using catheters when urinating.   Ironically, the athletes had trouble urinating because their prostates have enlarged because of the excessive use of the drug.Subsequent observations and studies ha ve manifested the benefits of the use of steroids by professional athletes.   Weight lifters who used steroids were seen to have increased their muscle strength and muscle growth. In comparison to those weight lifters who used steroids, those who took placebo or did not take anything at all showed a very slow increase in muscle growth and strength.   Steroids not only enhance the athletic performance of athletes, it also provide for the development of a physically fit, tighter and toner body not only for men but also for women.The Risks and EffectsJust like any other drug, steroids have also its share of risks and side effects.   One of the particular concerns of health officials over steroid use for a prolonged period is liver damage, increased risk in heart disease.   The side effects of the steroid use are also severe.   For men who use steroids, they tend to develop â€Å"breasts† or gynecomastia, painful prolonged erection (priapism) and edema due to water and sodium retention.   In the case of the Russian athletes in 1956, they had trouble urinating due to the enlargement of their prostates.  Ã‚   Cardiovascular problems also occur due to the increase of â€Å"bad† cholesterol or the low-density lipoprotein levels instead of enhancing the â€Å"good† cholesterol or the high-density lipoprotein levels.   With these harmful physical effects, psychological problems also come up.   There was an indication that man who takes steroids showed behavioral changes like being aggressive.On the other hand, women who use steroids suffer irreversible damages unlike the men who can correct what ever side effect they have after discontinuing the use of such drug.   Women develop facial hair growth, enlarged clitoris, and coarser skin.   They also increase the same cardiovascular problems like the men do.   Women also are at risk of infertility and other reproductive disorders.   Admittedly, professional athletes both men an d women still continue to use illegal steroids disregarding the risks even death because of their desire to win.EthicsThe debate of the use of steroids is not only limited to the health concerns.   Rather, the use of steroids by professional athletes is centered on ethics. One argument over steroid use by professional athletes is that it is a form of cheating.   When using steroids as performance enhancing drugs, they tend to depend on the drugs capability instead of their own.   Athletes using performance-enhancers seek to increase their athletic ability via drugs rather than through the training process, which requires true commitment and effort on the part of the athlete (â€Å"Steroids: Play Safe,† 2004).The athletes who are the center and the heart of the game use steroids to win or better their chances in winning, they gave into the power of the drugs over them instead of wielding and showcasing their strengths.   This is ultimately being unfair to other athlete s and professional players who only depend on their prowess, not of the drugs.   And since professional athletes play to win, as they are paid to do so, those who do not use steroids are extremely pressured to use them too in order to compete with the other athletes who have exceedingly enhanced performance.Another point raised on the ethical perspective of the use of steroid is that such use of a performance-enhancing drug allows professional athletes to tap into their undiscovered potentials. Although as discussed above, the athletes are the hearts of the game and they should be the one controlling it, not some drug, still with the aid of the drug, they are only harnessing their potentials to full use.   The privacy and the rights of the athletes to do to his body whatever he thinks is beneficial to him must be respected. Providing a stricter regulation on the use of steroid among professional athletes will not solve the problem.The decision to use or not to use such drug must be left to the discretion of the athlete.   The use of steroids among professional athletes may ultimately have been the result of â€Å"media hype†, and the ban on the use of such has been based on moral panic. By the making the use of steroids criminal, through drug testing may be even the cause of more health risks for the athletes.   As it is impossible to acquire the drug through a doctor, they instead turn to the underground or black market.   Instead of providing adequate help to the athletes who may limit or control the use of such drugs, banning it is ultimately forcing them to continue using steroids thereby driving them to further health risks in the first place.Athletes especially the professional ones are the role models of society especially the youth.   They have been looked up to by the society as pillars that are looked up to.   While each individual have the rights to do what he thinks is best for his own self, the state or the government can stil l impose regulations among its citizens especially if it concerns the health of many. The question of ethics should not come first but the health concerns.Although there have been reports and studies about the long time effects of the use of steroids, published cases of tumors and cancer-related cases, health experts and researchers do not exactly know the consequences   of steroid abuse   Ã‚  Even with all the data and reports submitted by researchers and users alike, still this are not conclusive and may be inaccurate. And so the federal government has issued a ban on the use of such.   Possession of steroids with the intent of distributing it is considered illegal and punishable by law.   Likewise, the use of steroids in sports is considered to be a violation of sports leagues and councils even the ethics of sportsmanship.But even with all the ban and regulation made by the government for the use of steroids especially in professional sports, many athletes still continue to use it despite warnings of its risks.   As drug testing is one way of determining whether an athlete is using steroids or not, professional athletes have found a way to go about and escape such drug testing. Just like the Ben Johnson who failed to bring home the gold in the 1988 Summer Olympics when he tested positive for steroids.   The catch is, he took 19 drug tests before that before he failed in the Seoul Games which eventually led to the forfeiture of his gold medal.   Ultimately, it is really up to the athlete whether he will use steroids to enhance his athletic performance or not notwithstanding the ban and regulation made by the federal government and the question of ethics as well.Reference:Bahrke, M.S., and C.E. Yesalis.   â€Å"The Future of Performance-Enhancing Substances in Sport.† The Physician and Sports Medicine , 2002, 30(11):1-21.Chuey, Daniel, Introduction to Benefits and Risks     www.biodavidson.edu accessed 1/30/06Chyka, P.A.. â€Å"And rogenic-anabolic steroids.† Clinical Toxicology. Philadelphia.WB Saunders, 2001, 595-601.Hobart, Sarah, â€Å"Athlete Use and Abuse of Performance Enhancing Drugs â€Å"www.biodavidson.edu accessed 1/30/06NCAA. â€Å"NCAA Drug-Testing Results 2002-2003.† Accessed 01/30/06 2003.2004. â€Å"Steroids: Play Safe, Play Fair.† American Academy of Pediatrics. . 1 Oct. 2004.

The Gullah or Geechee Community

The Gullah or Geechee Community The Gullah people of South Carolina and Georgia have a fascinating history and culture. Also known as the Geechee, the Gullah are descended from African slaves who were prized for their ability to grow crucial crops such as rice. Due to geography, their culture was largely isolated from white society and from other slave societies. They are known for having preserved a tremendous amount of their African traditions and language elements. Today, approximately 250,000 people speak the Gullah language, a rich mixture of African words and the English that was spoken hundreds of years ago. The Gullah are currently working to ensure that future generations and the general public know about and respect the Gullah past, present, and future. Geography of the Sea Islands The Gullah people inhabit many of the one hundred Sea Islands, which stretch along the Atlantic Ocean coasts of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and northern Florida. These marshy tidal and barrier islands have a humid subtropical climate. Sea Island, St. Helena Island, St. Simons Island, Sapelo Island, and Hilton Head Island are some of the most important islands in the chain. Enslavement and Atlantic Voyage Eighteenth-century plantation owners in South Carolina and Georgia wanted slaves to work on their plantations. Because growing rice is a very difficult, labor-intensive task, plantation owners were willing to pay high prices for slaves from the African Rice Coast. Thousands of people were enslaved in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Angola, and other countries. Before their voyage across the Atlantic Ocean, the slaves waited in holding cells in Western Africa. There, they began to create a pidgin language to communicate with people from other tribes. After their arrival in the Sea Islands, the Gullah blended their pidgin language with the English spoken by their masters. Immunity and Isolation of the Gullah The Gullah grew rice, okra, yams, cotton, and other crops. They also caught fish, shrimp, crabs, and oysters. Gullah had some immunity to tropical diseases like malaria and yellow fever. Because plantation owners did not have immunity to these diseases, they moved inland and left the Gullah slaves alone in the Sea Islands for much of the year. When the slaves were freed after the Civil War, many Gullah bought the land that they worked on and continued their agricultural way of life. They remained relatively isolated for another one hundred years. Development and Departure By the mid-20th century, ferries, roads, and bridges connected the Sea Islands to the mainland United States. Rice was also grown in other states, reducing the rice output from the Sea Islands. Many Gullah had to change their way of earning a living. Many resorts have been built in the Sea Islands, causing lingering controversy over ownership of the land. However, some Gullah now work in the tourism industry. Many have left the islands for higher education and employment opportunities. Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas spoke Gullah as a child. The Gullah Language The Gullah language has developed over four hundred years. The name Gullah probably derives from the Gola ethnic group in Liberia. Scholars have debated for decades over classifying Gullah as a distinct language or merely a dialect of English. Most linguists now regard Gullah as an English- based Creole language. It is sometimes called Sea Island Creole. The vocabulary is comprised of English words and words from dozens of African languages, such as Mende, Vai, Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba. The African languages also greatly influenced Gullah grammar and pronunciation. The language was unwritten for much of its history. The Bible was recently translated into the Gullah language. Most Gullah speakers are also fluent in standard American English. Gullah Culture The Gullahs of the past and present have an intriguing culture that they deeply love and want to preserve. Customs, including storytelling, folklore, and songs, have been passed down through generations. Many women make crafts like baskets and quilts. Drums are a popular instrument. The Gullahs are Christians and attend church services regularly. Gullah families and communities celebrate holidays and other events together. The Gullah enjoy delicious dishes based on the crops they traditionally grew. Great efforts have been made to preserve the Gullah culture. The National Park Service oversees the Gullah/Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor. A Gullah Museum exists on Hilton Head Island. Firm Identity The story of the Gullahs is very important to African-American geography and history. Its interesting that a separate language is spoken off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. The Gullah culture will undoubtedly survive. Even in the modern world, the Gullah are an authentic, unified group of people that deeply respect their ancestors values of independence and diligence.

Various Subsections of Anthropology

Various Subsections of Anthropology Studying humanity journey Introduction Anthropology is the study of human beings in time and space. The central theme of anthropology is to trace the development that has occurred to the human race from the past to the present in different geographical locations. In fact, it uses both scientific and humanistic means for its data analysis that is gotten from various studies and researches that are conducted on the human race and its close relatives.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Various Subsections of Anthropology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Anthropology explores various issues that pertain to the existence of life for humans and the physical, biological as well as geographical differences exhibited by the human race. From time in memorial, humans have evolved to display the differences that they have among themselves and other animals which share the same ancestral origin. For ease of study, anthropology as a discipline is divided into various study categories such as physical or biological anthropology, cultural anthropology and forensic anthropology among other sub-sections. Each of these sectors studies a certain aspect of human life aimed at bringing a clear and concise understanding of the human race. This paper aims at explaining the various subsections of anthropology and the role they play in enhancing the understanding of the value of anthropology. The value of studying human evolutionary sequence Of interest to anthropology is the idea of evolution which is pivotal to the explanation of emergence of different forms of life. Evolution theory can be traced back to the work of Charles Darwin who introduced it to modern biological and evolutionary thought. Physical anthropology as a branch deals with evolution of biological characteristics observed in human beings. Evolution can be described as the process by which living organisms have developed mostly through adaptation, natural selection and survival for the fittest to be what they are today. This theory uses genetical adaptation and inheritance to explain why some organisms have survived while others have become extinct (Thompson 1). The study of anthropology has helped in many ways both in understanding human beings and solving various problems that persistently arise. Physical anthropology understanding is crucial in the field of medicine.Advertising Looking for essay on anthropology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Most scientists believe that biological evolution can help in preventing and inventing cures as well as getting the local population to change their attitude towards medication. It is evident that many problematic diseases have their roots from the genetical inheritance that has occurred from the past. Medical researchers in this field need to study evolutionary biology to trace and get the cure of these early diseases. Evolu tion has played a key role in shaping the current anatomy, physiology and behavior that either exposes us to diseases or provides an immune system against the infections. Natural selection has acted through nature to eliminate mal-adapted organisms through diseases and other natural calamities. In the process, various organisms might have either survived or passed on defective genes. Major emphasis is laid on diseases and conditions that are passed through genes, from parents to offsprings which may need inference from biological evolution (Downie 3). Through studying humankind journey via evolution, we are able to understand the position of man in the current world of organisms. It sheds light on why humans are more developed than other organisms although origin of life seems to have been at similar interval. Past human activities that are recorded by archaeological undertakings help to explain the current changes in both humans and the environment we live. It is apparent that thro ugh beings evolution, archeologists have had great impacts on the natural environment by altering it to suit them (Brunet et al 146). Archaeology brings forth information from the ancient life and helps to reconstruct the extent to which human beings have changed. Adaptation to environment is a major tool used by human beings to survive and propagate. Humans globally exhibit different characteristics and behavior as per their geographical regions. These perceived differences are due to the influence of the geographical regions and cultural differences. Human variation (HV) studies the various differences exhibited by human beings namely behavior, color, genetical differences and adaptation measures. HV has evolved from the past through adaptive means to what is currently perceived. Through it, scientists are able to deduce whether humans have the ability to continue adapting successfully to the fluctuating environmental conditions or not. From this kind of data obtained from genetic pools of various past and present humans, scientists are able to advise human beings on potential dangers (Becks et al 989).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Various Subsections of Anthropology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Further, HV helps to explain disease prevalence in certain communities or geographical regions as opposed to others. For example, where the malarial disease has high prevalence, certain genetic traits are also prevalent. The study of HV shows that it is important in maintaining adaptive populations, biological variance for the functioning individual communities and ecological systems. Loss of HV may cause instability in human communities, negative effects in innate systems and genus viability (Becks et al 995). Archaeology is an anthropological discipline that is concerned with the history of people and their extinct cultures. It relies on the remains of left objects and materials called artif acts for the study and analysis. Archaeology is devoted to the search and excavation of the material remains to reveal the history of people and reconstruct their early life. It produces visible evidence to support the evolution theory. Historical archeology also relies on material culture and its exploitation but combines it with perspectives in anthropological field to bring an understanding of early lives of various groups of people whose material culture has been excavated (Paynter 169). Archaeology provides vital information on various issues that pertain to the extinct population. Information on diseases, cultural way of life, eating habits and other important aspects of human life can be gotten from archaeological analysis. Importance of understanding anthropological sub-fields Understanding the various sub-fields of anthropology has great importance in the life of individuals and that of the complete society. It is a common phenomenon for people to have a biased approach on others due to their differences in culture, color, eating, dressing habits and various aspects of community life. Countless conflicts occur due to the misunderstanding generated by difference in cultures (Brunet et al 148). Through understanding various topics, the prevention of such conflicts is possible. Besides, it prepares an individual for any occurrences that require great understanding of human dynamics.Advertising Looking for essay on anthropology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Conclusion Anthropology offers important scientific and humanistic knowledge on human beings. Anthropological information traces the descent of mankind from primitive forms to the developed forms that offers insight into the unobserved and observable characteristics which are helpful in a wide-range of scientific and humanistic application. Despite curricula importance, anthropological knowledge has wide individual application in real life. Archaeology and Palaeo-anthropology Introduction Archaeology is the humanistic and scientific study of ancient form of human beings through the use of material culture obtained via recovery and analysis. Material culture are the remains of environmental objects left by the ancient form of human beings including artifacts, building remains, biological remains namely plants, bones, ashes and other archaeological records. Archaeology traces human descent from the first primitive form of human life up the evolution ladder to the present form of human life which takes several million years ago. From paleolithic era to the development of complex human life, archaeology provides information on human evolutionary journey (Renfrew and Bahn 13). Palaeo-anthropology is the study of human fossils in support of evolutionary theory of human beings. However, fossil are the hardened parts of a human body that have been preserved for a long time through the action of nature such as in snow, burrows and in caves. It incorporates intelligible cultural practices like burial practices that man acquired in the process of evolution. Palaeo-anthropology uses both paleontology and physical anthropology to study human fossils. Indeed, physical anthropology is concerned with evolution based on biological inherited characteristics that are essential in the maintenance of human evolution path. Paleontology conversely studies the prehistoric life to determine the evolution and the interactions that occurred among early human beings which might have resu lted into the exchange of cultural practices evident in excavated human remains. Paleontology provides an extensive evolution view of the primary forms of life which are found within the context of early human life (Laudan 58). Human evolution Existing human beings are as a result of a long chain of evolutionary processes that has seen them develop from primitive forms to complex form. The study of their evolution is attributed to palaeo-anthropological studies that get their raw data from archaeological excavations. In the evolution sequence, human beings have adapted biologically to changing environmental conditions. Humans are believed to share a common ancestry with the apes but developed and adapted differently resulting to the differences observed between the ape family and human beings. Mutually, these species share various common and similar characteristics both genetically and cultural although apes display primitive form of human behavior (Laudan 59). The earliest form of human life is traced back to the appearance on the face of earth of an upright walking ape, approximately 6 million years ago. The human species were named hominid and was differentiated from that of the close human like apes named the chimpanzee on traits of uprightness and the use of opposable thumb. This difference is attributed to the use of tools that required the big finger to move constantly to allow for the gripping of the tool. These fossils are dated 7 million years ago. Further excavations yielded other fossils closer to human beings and were classified under the genera Australopithecus and Homo (Renfrew and Bahn 16). Through biological evolution initiated largely from the effects of environmental fluctuations, the general homo developed to Homo sapiens which are associated with the current day human beings. Fossils have been excavated all over the world bearing characteristics that have enabled archaeologists and palaeo-anthropologists to rank them accordingly in the hum an evolution sequence. From the earliest sahelanthropus species, humans have evolved through various stages each with different adaptations that have helped it to survive the torrid natural environment which has been changing from time to time. Natural selection in these species has determined which species were to prosper and propagate while others perished. Through nature, environment chose the best adapted forms of species to pass on to the next level to human evolution. The earliest fossils that had resemblance to human beings were discovered at Taung, near Kimberley in South Africa and were assigned to the genus Australopithecus (Dart 196). This hominid form was more like a chimpanzee and lacked the ability to create tools. Recent discoveries of Kenyanthropus hominid in Kenya that date 3.5 to 7 million years ago reinstated the idea of accepting a separate genera and species for the human beings. Palaeo-anthropologists cite that the separation between the chimpanzee family and t he human family ideally took place nearly 3.5-7 million years ago but each family developed on its own (Dart 197). Biological differences such as teeth pattern and bi-pedalism have been used extensively by palaeo-anthropologists to differentiate human beings forms and other close relatives. The evolution of hominid family was later followed by the excavation of the hominid ardipithecus from the Middle awash region in Ethiopia. This hominid displayed characteristics of terrestrial bi-pedalism which was linked to early human forms. This fossil similarly contained dental system that was close to hominids. The excavation of further hominid forms in Rift Valley also strengthened the argument of evolution (Brunet et al 147). Dentition was used to differentiate the extent of hominid resemblance. The following summary provides a detailed evolutionary sequence of man. The first fossils attributed to the genus Homo was the Australopithecine found in 1924 at Taung in South Africa by Raymond Da rt. The hominid walked erect, lived on the ground and probably used stones as weapons to hunt small animals. It was dated to be 3.5-7 million years old. The first evidence of the Homo species believed to have walked upright was discovered in Java in 1891. It was named Pithecanthropus Erectus meaning the erect ape man. Another kind of identical hominid was made in China; south-west of Peking called Peking man. The hominid had larger cranial capacity than Australopithecus yet lived in communal existence and used fire. The Acheulean tool making era is associated with this hominid. These tools were made of stone, wood and bone. The hominid is also said to have hunted big games in a communal way and lived in caves. The Home erectus gradually evolved into the Neanderthal man. This primitive man used stone flakes as tools, spears for hunting and is seen to have lived in cave (Renfrew and Bahn 15). The Neanderthals were capable of big game hunting including elephants, rhino et cetera. The f inal stage of man evolution is the appearance of the Homo sapiens hominid that represents the modern day man with all the capabilities to live complex lifestyles. It is to be noted that the evolution of man has taken millions of years and various reshaping of man by natural occurrences. Numerous factors have contributed to this evolutionary sequence. Evolution has been marred by struggle for survival. It included where only the fit survived, variations in both biological and physical traits, survival for the fittest which eliminated the mal-adapted organisms and denied them the chance to pass on their defective genes, hence natural selection (Dart, 198). Through natural selection, nature chooses organisms to propagate based on their ability to adapt to the changing natural conditions. Biological adaptation through genetic variance, mutation and propagation has played a key role in the evolution of man. Genes have enabled organisms that are better adapted to evolve further and deny t hose which are not the chance to evolve and therefore die away. Conclusion The emergence of current day man has been as a result of a long series of evolutionary stages that has been documented by palaeo-anthropologists using archaeological evidence of material remains left by early life forms. This trend has passed through several stages each characterized by different traits that brought closer the emergence of modern day man. Biological evolution through the role played by genetic inheritance has been pivotal in this sequence. Becks, Lutz, Ellner Stephen, Jones Laura and Hairston Nelson. â€Å"Reduction of adaptive genetic diversity radically alters eco-evolutionary community dynamics†. Ecology letters 13(2010). Brunet, Michel, et al. A new hominid from the Upper Miocene of Chad, Central Africa. Nature 418.6894 (2002): 145–151. Dart, Raymond. â€Å"Australopithecus africanus: The Man-Ape of South Africa†. Nature 115.2884 (1925):195-199. Downie, John, R. Evol ution in health and disease: The role of evolutionary biological in the medical curriculum, May 1994. Web. Laudan, Ronald. (1992). â€Å"Whats so Special about the Past?† Nitecki, Harman and Nitecki, David. History and Evolution, 2010. Paynter, Ray. â€Å"Historical Archaeology and the Post-Columbian World of North America†. Journal of Archaeological Research 8.3 (2000). Renfrew, Colin and Bahn, Paul. Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice. High Holborn, London: Thames Hudson Ltd, 2004. Print. Thompson, Paul. Biological evolution. Montgomery, AL. Apologetics Press Inc, 1994.

Subject-Verb Agreement for ACT English Tips and Practice

Subject-Verb Agreement for ACT English Tips and Practice SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips In this article, we shall delve into the fun-filled world of subject-verb agreement on the ACT. Subject-verb agreement questions on ACT English are less common than punctuation questions; however, you can count on having at least a couple of subject-verb agreement on your ACT English section, so understanding this grammatical rule can easily help you improve your ACT English score. While the grammar rule itself is relatively simple, the questions related to it can be challenging and a bit tricky. In this article, I’ll teach you strategies and tipsto become a master of all things subject-verb agreement on the ACT. In this post, I’ll do the following: Give you a clear understanding of subject-verb agreement. Explain why and how subject-verb agreement questions on ACT English can be tricky. Offer general strategies that can help you correctly answer subject-verb agreement questions. Provide you with practice questions so you can test what you’ve learned. Review: Definition of a Subject The subject of a sentence is the noun that corresponds with the verb in the sentence. In a sentence where there is an action, the subject is the noun that does the action. Doer of action=subject. Here's an example sentence: Justin rescued a kitten from a burning building. What is the subject? Justin. Why? Well, he is the hero who did the rescuing. Similarly, in a sentence with a description, typically using a form of the verb "to be," the subject is the noun that is being described. See: Justin is not funny. Once again, "Justin" is the subject because he is the person who is not funny. Now that we understand the concept of a subject, I'll define and explain subject-verb agreeement for you. Explanation of Subject-Verb Agreement Subject-verb agreement is a rule that states that all subjects must agree with their verbs in number. If a subject is singular, then you must use a singular verb. If a subject is plural, then you must use a plural verb. On the ACT, most subject-verb agreement questions deal with verb forms in the third-person singular (he/she/it/one) and third-person plural (they). In the present and present perfect verb tenses, third-person singular verb forms end in an "s." Third-person plural verb forms do not. Look at this incorrectly written sentence in the present tense: The reality television star readbooks. This is the corrected version of the sentence: The reality television star reads books. While you may have intuitively known how to correct this sentence, and you could have relied on what "sounds right," you should understand why the original sentence was incorrect. The subject of the sentence is "the reality television star." She is the person who does the reading. Furthermore, since we're referring to one reality star, the subject is singular. Because our subject is singular, the verb needs to be in the singular form. In the present tense, "read" is plural. Therefore, we need to change the verb to the singular form "reads." Let's look at another example with a plural subject. This is our incorrect sentence: The singers performs bad cover songs. How do we correct the sentence? Like this: The singers perform bad cover songs. The subject is "singers" because they are doing the performing. "Singers" is plural, so the verb should be in the plural form. The plural form of the verb is "perform." This rule may seem rather simple; however, of course, the ACT doesn't want to make life too simple for you. Subject-verb agreement questions on the ACT can be challenging. The sentences will be more complex than the ones above, and the subject-verb agreement errors will not be as obvious. How Are These Questions Challenging? Typically, when you encounter subject-verb agreement questions on the ACT, the subject will not be placed directly in front of the verb.The subject will either be separated from the verb by an interrupting phrase or, in rare cases, the sentence will be inverted and the subject will follow the verb. Here are ACT English tips you can use to identify the traps students fall for. Trap #1: Interrupting Phrases Interrupting phrases are phrases that separate the subject from the verb. These phrases make identifying the subject and determining whether the verb should be singular or plural more challenging. We'll take a look at a couple of types of interrupting phrases. You don't need to know all of the specific grammar terms, but you should understand and recognize the effect they have on subject-verb agreement questions. Prepositional Phrases The most common interrupting phrase that appears on the ACT is the prepositional phrase. Simply, a prepositional phrase is a phrase that begins with a preposition. What are prepositions? Prepositions provide additional details about nouns and often answer the questions "Where?", "When?", or provide descriptive information. Take a look at some examples of commonly used prepositions: http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-a-preposition-definition-uses-examples.html On the ACT, prepositional phrases tend to be inserted between subjects and verbs to distract from errors in subject-verbagreement. Here's an example of an incorrectly written sentence using a prepositional phrase as an interrupting phrase: Changes for the new and improved ACT Writing section is going to be implemented soon. First, let's identify the subject. What is going to be implemented? Changes. The phrase "for the new and improved ACT Writing section" is a prepositional phrase that begins with the preposition "for." The prepositional phrase describes the changes that will be implemented. See how the ACT can trick you by putting a singular noun, "section," right before the verb. However, because "changes" is plural, the verb should be in the plural form. Unfortunately, "is" is singular. Here's how the sentence should look: Changes for the new and improved ACT Writing section are going to be implemented soon. So how do you avoid falling for this common ACT trap? Strategy Cross out the prepositonal phrase and the sentence should still be grammatically correct. Additionally, using this strategy will enable you to more easily identify the subject and determine whether there's an error in subject-verb agreement. Always remember that the subject will never be contained within a prepositional phrase. Let's employ this strategy with the incorrectly written sentence above: Changes for the new and improved ACT Writing section is going to be implemented soon. Now that the subject is right in front of the verb, the subject-verb agreement error is much more obvious. The strategy involves three steps: Cross out the prepositional phrase. Identify the subject. Determine if there's an error in subject-verb agreement. Use this strategy and you'll be much less likely to miss a subject-verb agreement question on the ACT. You're welcome. Actual ACT English Example Question Let's use this strategy with an example taken from an actual ACT: First, let's cross out the prepositional phrase. Equipment for both types of kayaks are similar. We're left with "Equipment are similar." Even if the answer is obvious to you at this point, let's go through the remaining steps. The subject is "equipment," which is singular. The verb is "are," which is plural; therefore, there's an error in subject-verb agreement and the correct answer is G. Based on the context of the passage, the verb should be in the present tense. The other types of interrupting phrases on the ACT serve the same function as the prepositional phrase in subject-verb agreement questions. They separate the subject from the verb. Let's take a look at another common type of interrupting phrase on the ACT. Non-Essential Clauses and Appositives Non-essential clauses describe a noun, often the subject of a sentence. They are surrounded by commas and can be removed without creating grammatical errors or changes in the meaning of a sentence. Here's a sentence with the non-essential clause in bold: My sister, who is very social, was elected class president. The non-essential clause is separated by commas and serves to provide descriptive information about my sister. Removing the clause doesn't result in a grammatical error or change in the meaning of the sentence. Check it out: My sister, who is very social, was elected class president. One additional note about non-essential clauses is that a subject-verb agreement error can be contained within the clause itself. Take this sentence, for example: Carbonated beverages, which is delicious, are not good for your health. The verb in the non-essential clause, "is," corresponds with the subject "carbonated beverages." Because the subject is plural, the verb should be in the plural form as well. The sentence should read: Carbonated beverages, which are delicious, are not good for your health. While a non-essential clause usually starts with a relative pronoun (which, who, whose, or where), it doesn't in a phrase known as an appositive. An appositive serves the same purpose as a non-essential clause, but an appositive doesn't contain a verb. Here's a sentence with the appositive in bold: My sister, a very social person, was elected class president. The appositive provides descriptive information about my sister, but the phrase can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence or creating a grammatical error. How will knowing about these phrases help you answer subject-verb agreement questions on the ACT? Read below to find out. Non-Essential Clauses and Appositives on the ACT Just like prepositional phrases, non-essential clauses and appositives will be placed between subjects and verbs to make it less clear if there's an error in subject-verb agreement. Here's a sentence with a non-essential clause. I've underlined the subject and bolded the verb: My boss, who is extremely kind to his employees, give helpful advice. The non-essential clause separates the subject from the verb. The subject is "boss," which is singular, and the verb is "give," which is plural. There's an obvious error in subject-agreement. The sentence should read: My boss, who is extremely kind to his employees, gives helpful advice. On the ACT, you may encounter a similar sentence. Many students will incorrectly assume that the subject is "employees" because that is the noun closest to the verb. While "employees" is plural, the actual subject "boss" is singular. By correctly identifying the subject, you can avoid being tricked by the interrupting phrase. The method you should you use to avoid being tricked is the same one I taught you for prepositional phrases. Strategy In sentences with non-essential clauses or appositives, always cross out those phrases. Doing so makes it much easier to identify errors in subject-verb agreement. Let's use this strategy with the incorrectly written exmple sentence from above: My boss, who is extremely kind to his employees, give helpful advice. After we cross out the non-essential clause, we're left with "My boss give helpful advice." The singular subject is right next to the plural verb. The error in subject-verb agreement should be obvious. Nice! Actual ACT English Example Question Let's put our knowledge to use. Here's another example from a real ACT: In this example, the non-essential clause is surrounded by dashes, which serve the same function as commas in this sentence. The ACT folks threw in that extra curve ball because they also really like testing your knowledge of punctuation. If we cross out the prepositional phrase "of letters" and the non-essential clause, we're left with "Dickinson's last twenty years reveals." The subject is "years," which is plural, so the verb should be in the plural form. The answer is B. Let's briefly discuss one last type of interrupting phrase you may encounter on the ACT. Essential Clauses with "That" Occasionally, an error in subject-verb agreement will involve a clause beginning with "that." The clause will end right before the verb. For sentences with these clauses, simply use the same strategy we used with non-essential clauses. Take a look at this sentence: A book that has an interesting plot and well-developed characters are fun to read. The essential clause begins with "that" and ends right before the verb "are." Just like we did with non-essential clauses, let's cross out the clause. We're left with "A book are fun to read." The singular subject is now right next to the plural verb. Here's the corrected version of the sentence: A book that has an interesting plot and well-developed characters is fun to read. There's another tactic the ACT uses, though much less common, to complicate basic subject-verb agreement questions. Trap #2: Sometimes the Subject Comes After the Verb In rare instances, the typical word order of a sentence will be altered so that a prepositional phrase appears at the beginning of a sentence and the subject follows the verb. In these instances, it can be particularly challenging to identify the subject and determine if there's an error in subject-verb agreeement. In order to illustrate this point, let's look at an example sentence with the prepositional phrase underlined and the verb in bold: In the trunk of my car resides fifteen empty water bottles. We know that a subject can't be contained within a prepositional phrase. Also, we know that a subject is the noun that's doing the action. In the sentence, what's residing? The water bottles. The prepositional phrase provides information about where the water bottles are residing. Because the subject is "water bottles," the verb should be in the plural form. This is the correct version of the sentence: In the trunk of my car reside fifteen empty water bottles. The correctly written sentence may sound more awkward to you because the singular noun "car" is placed right next to the plural form of a verb. You should focus on the rules and strategies as opposed to just relying on what "sounds right." In extremely rare situations, the subject follows the verb but is not preceded by a prepositional phrase. Check out this sentence: Skipping school is fun, but less fun is its consequences. In this sentence, what is less fun? The "consequences". Therefore, in the second clause, "consequences" is the subject. The verb "is" corresponds with the subject "consequences." Because we have a plural subject and a singular verb, there's an error in subject-verb agreement. This is the corrected version of the sentence: Skipping school is fun, but less fun are its consequences. Is there a way to simplify these types of sentences to help determine if there's an error in subject-verb agreement? Of course. Strategy In sentences in which the subject follows the verb, rearrange the sentence so that it follows the normal structure of subject then verb. Using this strategy will allow you to more easily spot any errors in subject-verb agreement. If you utilize this method in the incorrectly written sentence above, you'd be left with "its consequences is less fun." The plural subject is now right next to the singular verb and the error should be immediately apparent. Now, we'll cover one more unique situation that can complicate the most basic subject-verb agreement questions. Trap #3: Compound Subjects A compound subject is a subject in whichtwo singular nouns are connected by "and."In a sentence with a compound subject, you should use the plural form of the verb. Here's a basic sentence demonstrating this rule: Justin and the ACT are friends. Because the subject is both "Justin" and the "ACT," the verb should be in the plural form. This is a more complicated example in which a prepositional phrase is also placed at the beginning of the sentence: In between the cushions of my couch is change and an old pen. First, let's rearrange the sentence so that the subject comes before the verb. What's in between the cushions? Change and an old pen. So after doing our rearranging, the sentence should read "Change and an old pen is in between the cushions of my couch." The subject is both change and an old pen; therefore, the verb should be in the plural form. This is the corrected sentence: In between the cushions of my couch are change and an old pen. At this point, we're aware of the ways the ACT complicates basic subject-verb agreement questions. We've also learned specific strategies to use when faced with certain types of situations. Here are some general tips to follow to help you correctly answer any subject-verb agreement question you may encounter on the ACT. General Strategies for ACT Subject-Verb Agreement Look for Errors in Subject-Verb Agreement When a Verb Is Underlined If a verb is underlined, make sure there are no errors in subject-verb agreement. Singular and Plural Forms of the Same Verb in the Answer Choices Signal a Possible Error in Subject-Verb Agreement On the ACT, you can often figure out what's being tested based on the underlined phrase and the answer choices. If you see that there are singular and plural forms of the same verb in the answer choices, determine if there's an error in subject-verb agreement. Always Identify the Subject Both subjects of sentences and subjects of clauses must agree with their verbs. For each underlined verb, find the noun that corresponds with that specific verb. Then, determine whether that subject is singular or plural and make sure that the subject and verb agree. The Subject Is Never Part of a Prepositional Phrase Be aware that a subject will not be part of a prepositional phrase. Most subject-verb agreement questions on the ACT separate a subject from a verb with a prepositional phrase. Remember the strategy of crossing out the phrase to aid in answering these questions. Be Able to Recognize the Common Tricks Knowing the common tricks the ACT English section uses on questions that test your knowledge of subject-verb agreement can be helpful. The better you know these tricks, the more quickly you'll be able to recognize them and use the appropriate strategies to correctly answer subject-verb agreement questions. Additional Practice Hopefully, by this point you thoroughly understand subject-verb agreement and how to correctly answer any subject-verb agreement question that may appear on the ACT. I've created some realistic ACT English practice problems to test you on what you've learned. Remember to use the general strategies I referenced above. 1. Beautifully written sentences composed by the prolific and talented author has been integral to his success. A. NO CHANGE B. have been C. was D. is being 2. The size and style of the dress is not to my liking. A. NO CHANGE B. was C. will being D. are 3. The selfish man, who owns five cars and two houses, has been unwilling to give any money to charity. A. NO CHANGE B. were C. have been D. has being 4. Mastery of grammar rules are essential to doing well on ACT English. A. NO CHANGE B. are being C. is D. were 5. Swimming pools that are above ground are often mocked by snobs. A. NO CHANGE B. are being C. is D. will been Answers: 1. B., 2. D, 3. A, 4. C, 5. A What's Next? Now that you're comfortable with subject-verb agreement on the ACT, familiarize yourself with everything that's actually tested on ACT English. You'll probably want to read this article about commas, too. For those overachievers out there, find out how to get a perfect score on ACT English from a perfect scorer. Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes what you study to your strengths and weaknesses. If you liked this English lesson, you'll love our program.Along with more detailed lessons, you'll get thousands ofpractice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Check out our 5-day free trial:

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